
由于接下来的书没有中文版了,因此笔记中英文都看心情
整数等价类
命题3.4:模运算下的整数等价类具有以下性质:
- 加法和乘法交换律
- 加法和乘法结合律
- 加法(0)与乘法(1)恒等式
- 乘法分配律
- 任意元素都存在加法逆元
- $a$为非零整数,$gcd(a,n)=1$当且仅当$a$存在乘法逆元,即存在非零整数$b$,使得$abequiv 1(mod n)$
(虽然我觉得这玩意儿记了应该没什么卵用)
【复习时的我回来打脸了
定义
- 二元运算(binary operation)或合成律(law of composition):a function $Gtimes Gto G$ that assigns to each pair $(a,b)in Gtimes G$ a unique element $acirc b$, or $ab$ in $G$, called the composition of $a$ and $b$
- 群(group): a set $G$ together with a law of composition $(a,b)mapsto acirc b$ that satisfies the following axioms:
- 合成律满足结合律(asscociative)
- 存在单位元(identity element)$ein G$,满足$ecirc a = acirc e = a$
- 对于每个$ain G$,都存在逆元$a^{-1}$,使得$acirc a^{-1}=a^{-1}circ a=e$
- 群 = 运算封闭+结合律+单位元+逆元
- 阿贝尔群(Abelian)或交换群(commutative):满足$acirc b=bcirc a$的群,反之为nonabelian或noncommutative
- 凯莱表(Cayley table):用加法或乘法描述群的表格
- 可逆元素群(group of units): 拥有逆元的元素组成的群
- 一般线性群(general linear group)
- 四元群(quaternion group)
- 群是有限的(finite),或者说有有限序数(has finite order),当它具有有限个元素,否则是无限的(infinite)或有无限序数(infinite order)
群的基本性质
命题3.17: 群中的单位元是唯一的
命题3.18: 逆元是唯一的
命题3.19: $G$是群,$a,bin G$,则$(ab)^{-1}=b^{-1}a^{-1}$
命题3.20: $(a^{-1})^{-1}=a$
命题3.21: $ax=b$和$xa=b$在$G$中有唯一解
命题3.22(左右消去律right and left cancellation law): $ba=ca$ implies $b=c$ and $ab=ac$ implies $b=c$
对群中的元素,可以定义乘方
定理3.23: 在群中,一般指数的运算律成立
子群
- 子群(subgroup):仿照子空间的定义
- 平凡子群(trivial subgroup):$H={e}$
- 真子群(proper subgroup)
- 子群必须继承群的二元运算
子群相关的定理
命题3.30: $G$的子集$H$是子群当且仅当
- $G$的单位元$ein H$
- $H$对$G$的运算封闭:If $h_1,h_2in H$, then $h_1h_2in H$
- If $hin H$, then $h^{-1}in H$
命题3.31: $H$是$G$的子群当且仅当$Hneqemptyset$ and whenever $g,hin H$ then $gh^{-1}$ is in $H$
循环子群(Cyclic Subgroups)
定理4.3: Let $G$ be a group and $a$ be any element in $G$. Then the set $left⟨aright⟩={a^k:kinmathbb{Z}}$is a subgroup of $G$. Furthermore, $⟨a⟩$ is the smallest subgroup of $G$ that contains $a$.
循环子群(Cyclic Subgroup):$⟨a⟩$
循环群(Cyclic group): 包含了某个元素$a$,使得$G=⟨a⟩$.此时$⟨a⟩$是$G$的生成器(generator).
The order of $a$: 最小的整数$n$满足$a^n=e$,表示为$|a|=n$。如果不存在满足要求的$n$,则称$a$是无穷的(infinite),表示为$|a|=infty$
e.g. $mathbb{Z}$和$mathbb{Z}_n$都是循环群,1和-1是$mathbb{Z}$的生成器,1是$mathbb{Z}_n$的生成器但不一定是唯一的。
定理4.9: 所有循环群都是可交换的。(Every cyclic group is abelian).
定理4.10: 循环群的子群都是循环子群。(Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.)
引理4.11: The subgroups of $mathbb{Z}$ are exactly $nmathbb{Z}$ for $n=0,1,2…$
命题4.12: Let $G$ be a cyclic group of order $n$ and suppose that $a$ is a generator
for $G$. Then $a^k = e$ if and only if $n$ divides $k$.($n$能整除$k$,$k$能被$n$整除)
定理4.13: Let $G$ be a cyclic group of order $n$ and suppose that $ain G$ is a generator
of the group. If $b = a^k$, then the order of $b$ is $n/d$, where $d = gcd(k, n)$.
引理4.14: The generators of $mathbb{Z}_n$ are the integers $r$ such that $1le r< n$ and
$gcd(r,n) = 1$. $mathbb{Z}_n$的生成器与$n$互质。
复数乘法群(Multiplicative Group of Complex Numbers)
一堆复数的基础知识…….
$r(costheta+isintheta)$ 会被简写为 $r~cistheta$
命题4.20: $z=r~cistheta$ and $w=s~cisphi$. Then $zw=rs~cis(theta+phi)$
圆群(The circle group)
定义: $$mathbb{T}={zinmathbb{C}: |z|=1}$$
命题4.24: 圆群是$mathbb{C}^*$的子群
定理4.25: If $z^n=1$, then the nth roots of unity are $$z=cis(frac{2kpi}{n})$$
where $k-0,1,…n-1$. Furthermore, the nth roors of unity form a cyclic subgroup of $mathbb{T}$ of order $n$.
A generator for the group of the nth roots of unity is called a primitive nth root of
unity.
重复平方法(The Method of Repeated Squares)
其实就是快速幂
理论基础: If $bequiv a^x (mod n)$ and $cequiv a^y (mod n)$, then $bcequiv a^{x+y}(mod n)$
$(a^{2n})^2equiv a^{2cdot 2n}equiv a^{2^{n+1}}(mod n)$




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